Vol. 2005-33  
International Capital Mobility under the Variable Real Interest Rate: Reassessment of Feldstein-Horioka Puzzle
Kazuhiko Yokota

This paper examines empirically the international capital mobility for several countries. The novelty of this paper is to develop a theory-based estimation method under the assumption of a variable real interest rate. Since the real interest rates are variable over both countries and time in the real world, it is more appropriate to assume that capital is sensitive to the real interest rate difference. The empirical results show that Singapore is a free capital mobile economy while India is a capital immobile economy.

Vol. 2005-32  
地方圏におけるインターネット関連産業とその経営者―大分県の事例
中澤高志

本稿では，大分県におけるインターネット関連企業の存立形態と，経営者の属性や経営に関する意向について報告する．インターネット関連企業は，業務内容からコンテンツ制作，ソフトウェア開発，インターネット関連サービスに分けることができる．いずれのタイプでも，業者間のリンケージ形成や顧客の獲得は，もっぱらインフォーマルなネットワークに依存している．対象企業の経営者のほとんどは，大分県内の出身者である．成長志向を強く持つ経営者がいる一方で，出身地で生活を送る手段として起業する道を選び，現状維持を志向する経営者もいる．情報財に対する顧客の認識が低く，不特定多数に対する営業活動が実を結びにくい大分の市場環境にあって，経営者は月々の固定収入を得られる業務を確立することを重視している．

Vol. 2005-31  
Foreign Fixed Capital Investments by Multinational Firms
Rene Belderbos; Kyoji Fukao; Keiko Ito

We develop a model of the allocation over countries of gross fixed capital formation by multinational firms. We test the predictions of the model on survey data for Japanese multinational firms in 1996, using fixed capital investment data contained in the Survey of Trends in Business Activities of Foreign Affiliates conducted by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI). Examining 605 fixed capital investment decisions at the firm and country level, we find that investment rates are positively affected by the firms’ global return on assets, while higher wages relative to wage levels in other countries reduce investment rates. Relative country risk similarly reduce investment rates, while relative output growth at the industry and country level has a positive impact only on investments in Asia. The sensitivity of investment rates to the country’s relative performance in terms of output growth, wages, and risk is found to be substantially greater for Asia than for other countries.

Vol. 2005-30  
インドネシアにおける通貨危機後の経済改革と貧困対策
本台進

1997〜98年の通貨危機によって深刻な打撃を受けたインドネシア政府は，国際機関や諸外国の金融支援を受ける代わりにIMFマクロ経済プログラムの受入に合意した。このプログラムの下で政府が実施した構造改革は，金融システムの改革，国有企業の改革や民営化，民間企業の改革，財政支出の見直し，地方分権化，税制，公共料金制度の改革など多岐にわたっている。こうした改革のうち主要なものを鳥瞰し，貧困世帯へ及ぼす影響を緩和するために採られた対策とその効果について検討する。改革後の貧困対策の特徴は，貧困世帯に対象を限定したプログラムの導入であり，主なものは食糧保障プログラム，教育支援プログラム，保健プログラム，雇用創生プログラムである。しかし，現実の実施段階では，それぞれのプログラムおいて貧困世帯のみが対象とされておらず，多くの富裕層世帯にもプログラムの便益が広くばらまかれている。そのため，貧困対策のための資源が貧困世帯へ集中せず，所得分配是正効果が大きくなっていない。したがって，貧困対策プログラムの効果を上げるためには資源の大きさだけでなく，その実施方法の検討にも重点が置くことが重要である。

Vol. 2005-29  
日本企業の知的財産戦略に関する実態調査
鄭成春

本稿は, 日本の中堅・大企業を対象としたアンケート調査に基づき, 日本企業の知的財産戦略の実態について調べたものである。この調査は, 2005年6月の時点で実施したものであり, 日本企業の知財管理体制・戦略及び日韓企業間の知財分野における協力の可能性について詳しく検討している。アンケート調査によると, 日本企業の知財戦略は, 管理組織, 人材育成, 企業経営上の位置づけ, 知財紛争への対応などの面で, かなり進んでいることが明らかになった。なお, 日本企業は, 中国における知財保護に関しては, 韓国企業との協力に高い関心を示していることが分かった。この調査結果に基づき, 本稿は, 韓国企業及び政府が今後取り組むべきいくつかの課題を提示する。

Vol. 2005-28  
Communication Externalities on the Knowledge-based Firms in Metropolitan Areas: Case Study of China and Korea
Nobuaki Hamaguchi; Yoshihiro Kameyama

This paper provides some evidence on communication style that serves as the contact tool and its related external economies to knowledge-intensive production and innovation within the emerging high-technology based industrial clusters in metropolitan areas of China and Korea. Our unique data-set from questionnaire survey enables us to examine the firms' behavior of communication regarding the choice of communication mode, how often, with whom, and for what purpose. Such analysis provides insights about actual relationships among business partners of industry-university-government in each cluster of Zhongguancun Area (Beijing), Seoul Digital Complex and Daedeok Valley (Daejeon). Our studies demonstrate that 1) with suppliers firms contact with high frequency but with less face-to-face meeting opportunities, 2) with customers and banks/investors but more with face-to-face contact, as common characteristic, 3) and that firms' long-term experience in the market is helpful to construct such meaningful communication network in Seoul Digital Complex. However, we could not show fully that communication externalities generated by the face-to-face contact influence the innovative output of firms.

Vol. 2005-27  
国境を越える企業買収戦略
横田一彦

国際的な輸送手段の進歩や情報通信技術の進歩，そして貿易障壁の低下によって，企業は新規直接投資やM&A戦略を増大させている。本論はM&Aのメリットとデメリットを明らかにし，国境を越えたM&Aがなぜ起こるのかを考察する。また，投資企業から投資受入国の企業への技術の流出という観点から，新規投資とM&Aの問題を設定し，簡単なモデルを用いて分析する。モデルから導かれる結論は�@投資，特にハイテク産業の投資の誘致には知的所有権の確立が必要である�AM&A投資は独占禁止法との兼ね合いを考える必要がある�B技術流出の程度はM&Aか新規投資かの企業の意思決定に重要な影響を与える，などである。

Vol. 2005-26  
Digital Divide in East Asia : Evidence from Japan, South Korea and Singapore
Hiroshi Ono

We examine the extent and causes of digital inequality in the three countries of East Asia - Japan, South Korea and Singapore. We take advantage of individual-level microdata collected in the three countries between 1997 and 2000, and highlight differences in the socio-economic and demographic patterns of technology adoption, usage, and skills across countries and over time. Despite the high overall rates of ICT diffusion in all three countries, there remains a clear divide in access and use between various demographic groups. We find that household income, education and gender are the key determinants of digital inequality in all three countries, but there is sizeable variation in their magnitudes. In general, we find that inequality in ICT access, use and skills reflects pre-existing inequality in other areas of economy and society in the three countries.

Vol. 2005-25  
Gender-Based Employment and Income Differences in Urban China: Considering the Contributions of Marriage and Parenthood
Yuping Zhang; Emily Hannum; Meiyan Wang

Market reforms in China have brought enormous changes to employment, most notably the emergence of a competitive urban labor market. Researchers have argued that the human and political capital disadvantages of women and new discrimination are important factors that sustain gender gaps in the new urban labor market. Analyzing a five-city urban labor survey, we show that gender disparities in human and political capital fail to explain gender gaps in work status and income. Moreover, we find no evidence of across-the-board discrimination against women. Instead, gender gaps in employment and earnings emerge primarily among the married and parents, groups for whom the gender gap in housework time is pronounced. Results suggest the need for further research on family-work conflict.

Vol. 2005-24  
Minimum Wages and Poverty in a Developing Country: Simulations from Indonesia's Household Survey
Kelly Bird; Chris Manning

This study assesses the efficiency of minimum wage policy as a tool of poverty reduction in a developing country. To do this we draw on recent studies that use simulations that take into account both who benefits and who pays for the wage increase using household-level data. On the benefits side, we assume that the increases in minimum wages in 2003 boost the incomes of families with at least one minimum or low wage worker. On the cost side, we assume producers pass on the full increase in wage costs to consumers through higher final prices. Generally, a minimum wage policy is 'pro-poor' (and hence a well 'targeted' policy) if it has a disproportionately positive effect on the incomes of poor households compared with other income groups. Our simulation results indicate that minimum wage legislation is not an effective target antipoverty instrument. Only about 17 percent of the additional earnings from the minimum wage hike in 2003 flow to poor households, another 34 percent of the benefits flow to the near-poor, while half of the benefits accrue to non-poor households. Moreover, the examination of net benefits reveals that only one in four poor households gain through higher incomes, while three out of four poor households lose through higher prices.

Vol. 2005-23  
上海経済圏における日系企業の立地状況
佐野浩

本論は，中国における日系企業の立地行動について，従来の省レベルでの分析から，より空間単位を落とした上海経済圏の内部における立地選択という，都市レベルでの分析を行った。1998-2002年における日系の製造業企業の立地選択問題に関して，conditional logit modelを使用して，その傾向の推計を行った。主要な結果では，日系の製造業企業は，多くの中国ローカル企業，および日系企業が集中している地域を選択する傾向がある，つまり集積効果が検出されたことである。製造業企業をより詳細に分析するため，製造業を繊維・衣服グループ，化学・素材グループ，機械グループの3つに分けて，その立地傾向についても分析を行った。その結果は，製造業全体の結果とは異なったものとなった。集積効果については，繊維・衣服グループと機械グループでは製造業全体とほとんど同じ結果を得たが，化学・素材グループにおいては集積効果は検出されなかった。この理由としては，産業の特質や進出年次の違いが存在することから導出されたものと思われる。

Vol. 2005-22  
北部九州圏における航空貨物の経路選択に関する研究
谷村秀彦; 歳森敦; 吉村英俊

新北九州空港は，国際物流拠点を標榜する北九州市にとって，地域経済の浮揚を図る起爆剤として大いに期待されている。2005年4月に一部開港する響灘新コンテナ港湾や現在建設中の東九州自動車道，JR在来線と連結し，複合一貫輸送が可能になるならば，北九州市の物流拠点としての優位性を確実に高めるものと思われる。 航空貨物の輸送量は世界的に見ても一貫して増加の傾向にあり，アジア諸国，とくに成長著しいマーケットと生産拠点機能を有する中国と地理的に近く，半導体やデジカメなどの電子部品・製品をはじめとする高付加価値型産業が集積する北部九州圏における国際航空貨物に対する需要は今後とも増大すると予想される。一方，首都圏への翌日配達を可能にする超速宅配便といった航空貨物商品が開発され，大型トラックのスピード規制や地球環境問題に配慮したモーダルシフトが推進されるなど，国内航空貨物についても同様に増加するものと予想される。 本研究は，まず，このような状況を研究の背景として整理し，次に，多くの輸送手段のなかから航空機を輸送手段として選択する際の決定要因を輸送品目，仕向け地別に調査分析し，新北九州空港に対する航空貨物需要を掘り起こすための基礎的知見を得ようとするものである。すなわち，北部九州圏において航空貨物業務に携わっている専門家を対象としてAHP（階層分析法：Analytic Hierarchy Process）による調査を実施して，航空貨物を北部九州から首都圏，アジア圏，北米圏へ移送するときの輸送手段選択の判断基準を半導体および電子機器，精密機械，生鮮食料品，衣類，書類等の5種類を選択し，品目別に分析した。なお，判断の基準としては，輸送運賃，運送時間，荷痛み，手続きの簡略さの4要因をとりあげ，さらに可能な輸送手段としては，航空便と船便とし，国内輸送の場合は，トラック便と鉄道便を追加した。 分析の結果から，その判断基準とそれから予想される輸送手段選択行動を検討することによって，今後の航空貨物政策への含意を導いた。すなわち，北部九州圏における航空貨物需要を伸ばし，高付加価値産業の育成に資するためには，国内においては首都圏を翌日流通圏に取り込むための深夜便を活用する輸送システムの整備，国際的にはトラックによるハブ空港への横持ちによる時間のロスをなくすような直行便による貨物ネットワークの整備などが喫緊の課題であることが示唆された。

Vol. 2005-21  
Cyclical Cooperation and Non-cooperation in an Economic Organization-- Implications for the Japanese Economy
Len-kuo Hu

This study attempts to provide a model explaining the dynamic behavior of an individual's cooperativeness and the evolution of an economic organization based on the implication of prospect theory. By endogenizing an individual's willingness to cooperate through its direct impact on his utility function and incorporating the factors of cooperation attitude and the individual's output share in the Ricardian type of production function, this model is able to describe the cyclical fluctuation of the individual's willingness to cooperate. This study concludes that except for perfect alignment of the initial cooperativeness among its constituents, the dynamics of an organization's cooperation cycle will be very irregular. The gradually widening and divergent cooperation attitudes among its constituents will eventually lead to the collapse of the organization. Finally I discuss the implications of this model for Japan's recent economic reform.

Vol. 2005-20  
The Impact of ICT Development on the Digitizing Economy of Taiwan
Chou Ji; Peng Su-Ling

It is clear that within the APEC economies there are patterns of industrial specialization and national idiosyncrasies, and that the development and influences of ICT are multi- dimensional. In an attempt to shed light on industrial-related policies, this study focuses on macro- and economic-oriented aspects as a means of evaluating the impacts of ICT. In embarking upon this project, our intention is to quantify the differences in ICT development for the APEC economies. In our efforts to reveal the effects of the ICT revolution on these economies, we employ an empirical study, involving principal component and growth accounting techniques, in order to explore the relationship between ICT and non-ICT industries. We intend to tackle a number of questions relating to the ability of ICT to accumulate national wealth, increase overall total productivity levels, boost industrial transformation and improve resource allocation.We recognize, however, that there are also disparities in the development of ICT amongst different APEC economies; whilst some economies are already at an advanced state, others are still desperately trying to catch up. For the digitizing economies within APEC, the contributions of ICT development are complicated; therefore, our focus will remain on certain specific digitizing economies as our samples, these being the US, Australia, Canada, Japan and Chinese Taipei. As we review the development of ICT in Chinese Taipei, we find that resources and budgets are mainly focused on the government sectors, with the private sector seldom relating to the public sector. Both the WMRC e-government ranking, and the EIU e-readiness ranking, indicate that the competitiveness of Chinese Taipei, in terms of its establishment of the appropriate e-environment, was downgraded in 2003 (the EIU ranking was the same as 2002, but this had already taken a backward step as compared to 2001). When checking the WMRC pro../Files for Chinese Taipei, it also becomes clear that the weaknesses are in the disability accessibility and security policy, whilst the EIU's report indicates that the defects for Chinese Taipei, in terms of the e- environment, are in the area of support for e-services, as well as social and cultural areas. It is clear therefore that Chinese Taipei has to strengthen its e-power by establishing a strong consensus for cooperation. Extracting the IMD's indicators on technological and scientific infrastructure by principal components analysis, we find that Chinese Taipei ranked sixth amongst the seventeen APEC economies, behind the US, Japan, Canada, Singapore and Australia. We also find that Chinese Taipei has advantages in general ICT development, R&D spirit, and ICT infrastructure but that there is room for improvement in R&D inputs and the necessary incentives for information and technology. This signifies that the government needs to allocate a greater budget, or other incentives (such as tax reductions, subsidies or appropriate supporting policies), for information and technology in order to improve R&D expenditure levels by both the public and private sectors so as to stimulate the overall development of ICT. Our empirical study, using growth accounting techniques, shows that the increase in TFP has contributed significantly to economic growth in Chinese Taipei, but that the greater part of the contribution made by TFP is nevertheless derived from intra-industry technological progress effects. The tests for inter-sector externalities from ICT using cross-economy data show a positive sign with statistical significance. The policy implications from our empirical findings are that the APEC economies may be placing too much emphasis on ICT development, per se, whilst the use of information and communications technology still lags behind. It is therefore necessary to determine how to utilize ICT, from a universal perspective, and how best to use the digital dividends, not only for domestic rural areas, low income households and the disabled, but also on an international scale for the less-developed economies.

Vol. 2005-19  
Impact of Economic Reform on Wage Structure in Vietnam
Amy Y. C. Liu

Using the two rounds of Viet Nam Living Standards Survey collected in 1992-93 and 1997-98, this paper examines various aspects of the changing wage structure in the post-reform era, namely, gender wage gap and overall wage inequality. The results reveal that, in 1998, discrimination rather than endowment account for most of the within-sectoral gender wage differentials. While the within-sector differences are more important than the between-sector differences, the latter indicates that public sector downsizing has worsened women's economic position as more women move away from the public sector to the private sector. Over time, the gender wage gap has narrowed. However, the decomposition results have highlighted that the narrowing gender pay gap has masked increase in discrimination. The analysis of the overall wage inequality indicates that in Viet Nam, unlike in other transition economies, wage inequality has decreased. Residual effect is identified as the key contributing factor to this outcome. The disequalising impact on inequality from the human capital and economic restructuring effect are evident but are completely offset by the equalising impact of the residuals.

Vol. 2005-18  
The Dynamics of China's Labor Market: Job Creation and Destruction in the Industrial Sector
Haiyan Deng; Robert McGuckin; Jianyi Xu; Yaodong Liu; Yuqi Liu

This paper demonstrates that China has made substantial progress in its transition to a market-driven economy, and privatization and federalization have been very important factors in improved business efficiency. To date, not much systematic research has been done to reveal the details of the dynamics of China's labor market and its relation to China's extensive restructuring process. This study provides an in-depth and initial look at the gross job flows for China's large and medium industrial enterprises during 1995-2003. By exploring a firm level data set, we focused on deriving a time series of gross job flow statistics and link them with associated entrants, exits, or firms with continuing operations. The time series of job flow statistics exhibits wide-ranging enterprise restructuring, which has increasing effects on the labor market from year 1998 on. Our gross job flow analysis also illustrates that government controlled enterprises and federally administered firms were at the center of restructuring. Because of the extensive reorganization in the labor market, the labor productivity of China's large and medium industrial firms as a whole was astounding, growing at an annual rate of 20.4 percent. Although private firms still outperformed government controlled firms, these government controlled firms pushed up their labor productivity growth by shedding off redundant employment and reorganizing into joint stock enterprises. Shifts of governmental regulation to more local areas have also created a productivity stimulus for federally administered firms to catch up with firms at the local government level.

Vol. 2005-17  
Reforming Government-Backed Financial Institutions: The battle for postal savings reform in Japan
Jennifer Amyx

This paper examines the political dynamics surrounding the reform of postal savings/banking institutions, focusing in particular on the case of Japanese postal savings reform. The paper compares pressures for reform in Japan to those faced elsewhere, showing that external pressures for reform as well as efficiency-based arguments for reform have been particularly weak in the Japanese case. The paper also engages in a diachronic analysis, highlighting the ways in which the nature of the political battle over postal savings reform has changed in Japan over the years. Focus is placed in particular on the changed political dynamics that have emerged in recent years under the Hashimoto and Koizumi administrations, leading postal privatization to eventually occupy a top place on the political agenda. This analysis helps underscore the weaknesses in conventional explanations that focus exclusively on the clout of postmasters as the source of delayed reform and raises alternative explanations for the earlier delay. The paper argues that Japanese citizens have historically proven more willing to entrust their funds to postal savings than to private banks due to a combination of two factors: the nature of private sector financial regulation in Japan (often referred to as the "convoy approach" to regulation) that led private banks to focus little on retail banking, and the relatively high degree of competence observed in the administration of the postal system in Japan over the postwar period by the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications (MPT) relative to the MPT's counterpart government agencies elsewhere in the world. Finally, the paper highlights the consequences of delayed reform by examining new problems faced by the government in carrying out major reforms, now that political will to reform appears to be in place.

Vol. 2005-16  
Profile of Poverty and Probability of Being Poor in Rural Indonesia
Susumu Hondai

When characteristics of the poor are examined with respect to several important variables, a relative incidence of poverty varies greatly with respect to education and the sector of work of a household head. It is greater than one when educational level is less than junior high school in rural areas. When a household head finished junior high school or higher, his relative incidence of poverty is far smaller than one. It may imply that providing higher education is essential to reduce rural poverty in Indonesia in the long run. However, a rate of increase in household expenditure to an additional year of education is almost zero in the agricultural and manufacturing sectors in rural areas. This fact indicates that although a household head finishes education higher than junior high school, he may not be able to raise his household expenditure as long as he stays in the agricultural and rural manufacturing sectors. This implies that education alone will not solve a poverty problem in rural areas.

Vol. 2005-15  
Exporting and Foreign Ownership in Indonesian Manufacturing, 1990-2000
Eric D. Ramstetter; Sadayuki Takii

Foreign plants usually accounted for disproportionately large shares of exports in Indonesian manufacturing industries and exports of heavily-foreign plants (foreign ownership shares of 90-100 percent) grew conspicuously after the early-1990s. Foreign plants usually had significantly higher export propensities than local plants, although accounting for variation in factor intensities, size, and vintage reduced the differences. Heavily-foreign plants tended to have the highest export propensities, but differences among foreign ownership groups were statistically insignificant in half of the cases examined. Statistically significant differences among foreign plants were concentrated in heavily-foreign plants in textiles, plastics, basic metals, metal products, and electric and precision machinery during the mid- to late-1990s.

Vol. 2005-14  
Convergence across Chinese Provinces: An Analysis using Markov Transition Matrix
Hiroshi Sakamoto; Nazrul Islam

This paper adopts the distribution approach to study convergence across Chinese provinces. In particular, it uses the Markov transition matrix methodology to capture the dynamics embodied in the data and to produce corresponding ergodic distributions. The results indicate that distribution of per capita income across Chinese provinces has become bi-modal over the period of 1952 to 2003. This conforms to the general impression of rising regional disparity in China and is therefore discouraging from the point of view of convergence. However, examination of the dynamics of the pre- and post-reform periods separately shows that the ergodic distribution on the basis of the post-reform period is negatively skewed, with more provinces at the higher end of the distribution. This provides some ground for optimism regarding regional convergence in China.

Vol. 2005-13  
Determinants of Productivity: A Two-Stage Analysis
Nazrul Islam

Following Solow's (2001) recent advice, this paper adopts productivity as the left-hand-side variable and offers a cross-country analysis of its determinants. The analysis follows the two-stage methodology, the first of which is devoted to obtaining productivity estimates, and the second stage is devoted to analyzing these estimates. The paper classifies productivity determinants into four types, namely 'economic factors,' 'institutions,' 'social base,' and 'physical base.' The empirical productivity model presented in this paper includes productivity determinants of all these different types. The empirical relationships established in this paper should prove helpful in further development of a theory of total factor productivity (TFP).

Vol. 2005-12  
Demographic bonus and the impact of migration: The case of Shanghai
Xizhe Peng; Yuan Cheng

This paper analyzes the preconditions for harvesting the demographic bonus as well as the corresponding situations in urban and rural China. It introduces an overlapping generation model to illustrate the effects of decline in fertility rate and immigration on the demographic windows. Based on the case of Shanghai, it is argued that internal migration is the bridge to match the conditions of harvesting demographic bonus in both sending and receiving areas, and therefore could prolong the time span of harvesting demographic bonus in the urban areas while provide opportunities for the poor rural areas to be able to harvest demographic bonus, and result in a win-win situation.

Vol. 2005-11  
Profitability in Taiwan's Electronics Manufacturing Services' Firms: A Comparison with American Firms
Chikashi Kishimoto

The outsourcing of product-related functions has recently become widespread and led to the rise of "Electronics Manufacturing Services (EMS)". This business model is epitomized by a handful of huge, mainly North American, contract manufacturers such as Flextronics, Solectron, Sanmina-SCI, Celestica, and Jabil Circuit. Taiwanese subcontractors have also become indispensable strategic partners for major computer and IT companies, and recently developed global production networks to rival those of the American EMS business. This paper compares the performance of these two groups of EMS firms finding that Taiwanese firms have generally been more profitable in recent years. Higher profitability of Taiwanese companies is attributed to several factors including maintaining higher revenue growth, better performance in efficiency measures, and much more investment in R&D.

Vol. 2005-10  
Distribution in Chinese Affiliates of Japanese Automobile Firms
Chikashi Kishimoto; Eric D. Ramstetter

This paper tries to shed light on the answer to a very simple question: how do Japanese automobile and automobile parts makers supply their products and purchase parts/materials for the Chinese Market? Given Japan's strong comparative advantage in many related product categories and China's strong comparative disadvantage in the same categories, one would generally expect Japanese exports to provide a very large portion of the goods required. However, Japanese exports are also limited by China's high levels of import protection and logistic difficulties in getting goods to market in China. Many Japanese firms have thus sought to service the Chinese market directly from operations within China, often buying from and selling to other Japanese firms in China. The evidence collected in this paper suggests that the vast majority of sales are sent to other Japanese firms in China or to Chinese customers, while a much larger portion of purchases are made from Japan, either directly from Japanese suppliers or through their representatives in China. Finally, the study summarizes the results of detailed survey of six affiliates that was designed to illuminate how various distribution channels are used and the problems encountered with various channels.

Vol. 2005-09  
中国の省間所得格差：動向を知る
坂本博

本稿は，中国における地域格差問題の中で，省間所得格差に注目し，長期のデータを用いて，その動向を再検討したものである。ここでは，分析の高度さよりも分かりやすさを念頭において検討しており，変動係数や対数標準偏差，タイル尺度による格差の地帯分解および収束仮説について分析した。中国の省間所得格差は，1990年代後半以降拡大傾向にあったが，21世紀に入り，その状況は幾分緩和されてきたことが明らかになった。その要因として，西部大開発戦略が実行された点と，農村部からの出稼ぎ動向に変化が見られたことを指摘する。しかしながら，この状況が続くのか，また格差が拡大するのかはこの時点でははっきりせず，今後の動向に注目する必要がある。

Vol. 2005-08  
上海市の所得格差
坂本博

経済発展と所得分配との関係は長らく議論されているが，現在でも重要な経済問題として位置づけられる。特に経済が急速に発展している中国において，この問題に対する関心は日増しに高まっている。本研究は，中国の経済発展の核である上海市を取り上げ，所得格差を分析したものである。ここでは，『上海統計年鑑』から得られた1985〜2002年の所得分配の集計データを用いて，ガウスカーネルによる所得分配構造の推計を行い，所得格差の変化を分析した。推計結果より変動係数やジニ係数を計測することで，上海市の都市部の所得格差が1995年に頂点に達したことを明らかにしているが，都市部と農村部をあわせると，格差は依然拡大傾向にある。よって引き続き上海市は所得格差問題に直面していることになる。さらにマルコフ連鎖を用いた分析でも同様の結論が得られている。

Vol. 2005-07  
広西壮族自治区における工業企業の効率性と生産性の計測
坂本博

中国の経済成長を支えているのは，主に工業部門の成長である。したがって，経済成長が遅れている広西壮族自治区にとって，工業部門の成長は重要な課題である。本稿は，1995年以降のデータを用いて，広西壮族自治区の大中型工業企業の効率性と生産性を計測したものである。データは限られているが，インプットとアウトプットのデータが2種類ずつあるので，包絡分析法（DEA）を用いた。まず，計測された効率値の平均が0.5を下回っていることが明らかとなった。これは相対的に非効率な企業が多数存在することを意味する。また，Malmquist生産性指数を計測しても，全体的に大きな生産性の改善は見られなかった。この点はサンプルを12産業に分類した場合でも大きく変わらなかった。第九次五カ年計画以降，インプット重視の粗放型の成長から効率性重視の集約型の成長への変革が言われ，国有企業の改革も盛んに言われてきたが，この分析結果から見るに，広西壮族自治区の工業企業の生産性の改善が見られず，効率的に工業を発展させることの難しさを物語っている。

Vol. 2005-06  
Does Viet Nam Provide Big Bang Lessons to China?
Nazrul Islam

This paper examines Sachs and Woo's (2000) claim that Viet Nam's experience shows that China would have done better if followed the Big Bang approach to reform instead of the Gradual approach. The paper scrutinizes this claim from the point of view of (a) factual correctness, (b) appropriateness of characterizations, (c) appropriateness of the analogy, and (d) the validity of the conclusions. It finds that Sachs and Woo's claim falls short of meeting these criteria. The Vietnamese economic reforms do not lend support to the Big Bang approach. Instead they provide further evidence that the Gradual approach is the appropriate route to reform.

Vol. 2005-05  
Foreign Direct Investment and Wage Spillovers in Indonesian Manufacturing Industry
Akinori Tomohara; Sadayuki Takii

This paper examines whether foreign direct investment benefits workers employed by domestic companies in a host developing country. Using the key-industry hypothesis approach, the analysis shows that wages set by multinational companies have positive externalities on the wage level of domestic companies. Increased wages of domestic companies are due not only to increased productivity, but also to equity concerns. Specifically, fairness comparison plays an important role when there are larger wage gaps between multinational and domestic companies.

Vol. 2005-04  
Income Inequality in Urban China: a Case Study of Beijing
Dai Erbiao

This paper measures the income inequality among Beijing households, including both rural migrant households, who had been overlooked in previous studies, and urban-registered households. Furthermore, it estimates the influence of migrant households on the overall income inequality by decomposing the Theil index of overall inequality into three components: the share of inequality within urban-registered households, the share of inequality within migrant households, and the share of inequality between these two types of households. The result shows that the income inequality within migrant households has become the largest component of the overall income inequality in Beijing.

Vol. 2005-03  
国際貿易と経済成長−生産性格差，外部経済効果と東アジアの異質性−
横田一彦

拡張された２部門不均衡アプローチの枠組みの中で，先進国，途上国あわせて51カ国，24年間のサンプルを用い，国際貿易が経済成長に与える経路を明らかにし，東アジア諸国が他の国々と異なるか否かを検証した。その結果，輸出産業と非輸出産業の間の生産性格差，輸出産業から非輸出産業への技術・知識のスピルオーバー，および輸入中間財と国内中間財の生産性格差が経済成長に重要な役割を演じていることが確認できた。さらに，経済成長メカニズムの違いによってグループ化された東アジア諸国は生産性格差と外部経済効果の点で他の発展途上国のみならず先進諸国とも異なり，国際貿易が経済成長に大きな影響を与えるメカニズムを持っていることが確認できた。このうち技術・知識のスピルオーバー効果は市場の歪みが是正された後にも持続する可能性があり，経済発展の見地からは特に重要である。

Vol. 2005-02  
Regional Cooperation of Small & Medium Firms in Japanese Industrial Clusters
Tomokazu Arita; Masahisa Fujita; Yoshihiro Kameyama

This study examines the effects of intra-regional cooperation among firms and institutions on the growth of firms, using the unique data set of questionnaire survey collected in the three major industrial clusters in Japan. In contrast to the existing studies on regional innovations or agglomeration economies, this study explicitly focuses on the detailed contents of cooperative activities with two specific viewpoints: 1) the contents of regional cooperation in each of the three production stages of R&D, commercialization, and marketing, and 2) the detailed types of alliance partners. Our results demonstrate three points: 1) positive correlations are observed between the intensity of regional cooperation and the firm growth rate and R&D expenditure, 2) horizontal cooperation such as alliances with universities and cross-industry exchange organizations has positive significant effects on the growth rate of firms, contradicting with the previous studies that stressed only the role of vertically integrated inter-firm linkages in Japan, and 3) contents and partners of regional cooperation are different among the three clusters based on different dominant industries.

Vol. 2005-01  
Trade, Foreign Firms, and Economic Policy in Indonesian and Thai Manufacturing
William E. James; Eric D. Ramstetter

This paper first examines the rapid growth and changing composition of manufactured exports in Indonesia and Thailand, highlighting the rapid growth of office and computer machinery and electric machinery, somewhat slower growth of non-electric and transportation machinery, as well as the low growth of previously large exports of textiles apparel. Second, the important contributions of foreign multinational enterprises (MNEs) to export growth in the machinery industries, particularly in electric, office, and computing machinery, are documented. Third, the paper describes trade policies in all these industries in some detail, emphasizing how low protection was a key facilitator of rapid export growth in the MNEs that dominated the electric, office, and computing machinery industry, while high protection reduced incentives to export among MNEs in the transportation machinery industry.

ICSEAD Working Paper Series